Skiing.

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Skiing.
I

INTRODUCTION

Skiing, winter sport in which people move across snow-covered terrain with long, narrow, specially designed boards called skis attached to their feet. Although people
have been skiing for about 5,000 years, the sport did not become a popular form of recreation until the 20th century. Millions of people worldwide enjoy skiing for its
exhilaration, sense of freedom, physical challenges, and fitness benefits.

II

TYPES OF RECREATIONAL SKIING

There are two basic types of recreational skiing: Alpine, or downhill, and Nordic, or cross-country. The goal in recreational skiing is to ski competently on a variety of
terrain and under various conditions. Competitive skiers go one step further, pitting their skill against the clock or against the skill of others. Skiing carried to its
limits--on extremely difficult slopes or under extremely dangerous conditions--is known as extreme skiing.

A

Alpine Skiing

Alpine skiing derives its name from the mountain range the Alps in Europe, where the sport developed in the late 1800s as a means of moving down snow-covered
slopes. Skiing spread to other parts of the world and is now done primarily at ski resorts on specially cut trails. A variety of lifts carry skiers up the hill. The most
common lift in North America is the chairlift, which is a series of seats suspended from a motor-driven cable that pulls the seats up the mountain. Various surface lifts,
which pull skiers up the hill while they remain standing on skis, include rope tows, T-bars, J-bars, and poma lifts (also known as platter pulls). Many larger areas have
enclosed aerial lifts, such as gondolas or trams, which allow skiers to take off their skis and ride up the mountain inside specially designed cars suspended from cables.
In Europe, cog railways and funiculars (cable railways) are also used to carry skiers up a slope.
Almost all ski resorts have equipment to make snow artificially when there is not enough natural snow to support the sport. Snowmaking equipment combines air and
water with special additives and then sprays the mixture at very high pressure onto the slopes. Grooming machines smooth out the slopes and ensure that the snow
has a uniform consistency.

B

Nordic Skiing

Nordic skiing, also known as cross-country skiing, can be done on almost any terrain that has snow and is not too steep. Nordic skiing is often done at cross-country ski
centers, which have many kilometers of mostly flat trails prepared for skiers. Most have trails prepared for both the traditional diagonal stride and for the newer skating
technique (see Skiing Fundamentals section of this article). Traditional trail preparation involves flattening out two tracks in which skiers can slide their skis. Skating
trails are wider and smoothed out.
Telemark skiing is the downhill component of cross-country skiing, which incorporates some Alpine techniques. It is becoming increasingly popular among recreational
skiers. A few ski areas have small ski jumps for learning basic jumping skills, but ski jumping is limited almost entirely to competition.

III

SKIING FUNDAMENTALS

The easiest and safest way to learn to ski is by taking lessons. Virtually every ski resort offers instruction. The American Teaching System, a synthesis of the best
techniques from several countries, is recognized worldwide as the leading teaching method and is the basis for all ski schools in the United States.

A

Alpine Techniques

The basic technique for beginning Alpine skiers is the snowplow, or wedge. The snowplow enables skiers to make turns, control their speed, and stop. It is done by
placing the tips of the skis together and the tails apart, creating a wedge shape, and then pushing down on the inside edges of the skis. To turn, the skier shifts body
weight from one ski to the other while keeping the skis in the wedge shape. Traveling across the width of a slope is called traversing. Beginning skiers learn how to turn,
then traverse, then turn the other direction. As they gain skill, they gradually bring the tails of their skis closer together until they are parallel, and they traverse a
narrower area and link their turns. Most advanced skiers hold their skis a few inches apart in a parallel position, giving them the flexibility to shift their weight quickly
from ski to ski.
Some other techniques used in Alpine skiing include stem turns (pushing one ski out to the side in a small wedge), step turns (stepping onto the turning ski), and
sideslipping (sliding down the mountain sideways). Up unweighting and down unweighting (lifting up and sinking down on the skis) are used to facilitate turns,
especially in deep or heavy snow. In their extreme form, these become jump turns: Skiers jump into the air, turn their skis, and then sink back down into the snow.
This advanced maneuver is often used on extremely steep, narrow terrain where no other technique will work. Some Alpine skiers engage in freestyle skiing. Freestyle
for recreational skiers generally involves jumps off of natural bumps on the hill, a motion called catching air, and skiing moguls. Moguls are the bumps that appear on a
slope after many skiers make turns, pushing the snow into mounds.

B

Nordic Techniques

The basic technique used in cross-country skiing is the diagonal stride, or classical technique, which is similar to walking on skis: Skiers slide one foot forward and then
the other. They use their poles to propel themselves forward, pushing with their right pole as they slide their left ski forward, and then pushing with their left pole as
they slide the right ski, gradually adding speed and gliding between steps. The skating stride or freestyle technique borrows the motions of speed skating. With the skis
held at an angle, tips pointed outward, the skier pushes forward off the inside of each ski edge in alternation, using both poles at once.
In climbing hills, a skier puts the skis in the position of the skating stride, but instead walks up the hill. This is called the herringbone for the pattern of tracks it leaves in
the snow. On steep hills, skiers can also sidestep, placing their skis perpendicular to the fall line (the quickest path down the hill) and stepping uphill.
Downhill turning techniques used in Nordic skiing include the snowplow, the step turn, and the parallel turn, executed in a similar manner to Alpine skiing. Cross-country
skiers can also use the telemark turn, in which the turning ski is placed slightly in front of the other ski and the opposite knee is bent deeply as the skier slides around
the turn.

C

Ski Safety

Safety is very important to all skiers, and all Alpine resorts have a ski patrol. The ski patrol's responsibility is to take care of injured skiers, to mark hazardous spots on
trails, to make sure that trails are in good condition before opening them, and, at times, to act as traffic police in congested areas. Skiers are also responsible for taking
their own safety into consideration, as well as that of others. Anyone who participates in the sport should be aware of the Skier's Responsibility Code, which outlines
rules of proper conduct and assures a high level of safety for everyone taking part in the sport. This code is posted at all ski resorts.
Another way that skiers can act responsibly is by understanding trail designations and staying on trails that suit their level of expertise. The signs most commonly used
to designate trail difficulty in the United States are green circles for easy slopes, blue squares for intermediate runs, and black diamonds for difficult trails. Double black
diamonds are sometimes used to designate especially difficult terrain.

IV

EQUIPMENT

Alpine skis vary in construction, but they all have a hard plastic top surface, a polyethylene running surface, and steel edges. They are composed of a core material,
either foam or wood, with layers of fiberglass and sometimes metal.
Ski length is determined by a number of variables, including a skier's height, weight, and ability. The taller and heavier the skier, the longer the ski. Beginners generally
use shorter skis for easier maneuvering. Ski lengths for adults range from about 150 to 210 cm (about 5 to 7 ft).
One of the newer innovations in Alpine ski design is the so-called shaped ski, also known as the cut, super sidecut, parabolic, or hourglass ski. The name comes from
the ski's shape: a wide tip, a narrow waist, and a wide tail. Whereas traditional skis are wide at the tip and tail and slightly narrower through their middle, shaped skis
have greater variation in width. These skis are specifically designed to make it easier to carve a turn. Although they were originally designed for beginning and
intermediate skiers, many advanced skiers and racers have begun using shaped skis as well. Shaped skis are typically 8 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in) shorter than traditional
skis.
There are several variations on Alpine ski equipment. One is the monoski, which is a single, wide board. Another popular piece of equipment is the skiboard, which is
also called the mini-ski. Skiboards are only about 60 cm (24 in) long. Because of their short length, they allow skiers great maneuverability on the slopes. A more recent
innovation is the ski bike, which combines cycling and skiing. The ski bike has handlebars and a seat, just like a bicycle, but it has boards instead of wheels. Riders wear
short skis on their feet to help steer. Snow scoots are similar to ski bikes, but they have no seat, and riders secure their feet in footstraps. Riders steer by leaning back
and forth to put pressure on the edges of the board.
Cross-country skis are narrower and lighter weight than Alpine skis, and construction is similar to Alpine skis but omits the metal edges. Skating skis range in length
from about 170 to 190 cm (about 5 ft 7 in to 6 ft 3 in) for adults. Compact skis, which make learning easy, are about 150 cm long. Touring, or diagonal-stride, skis
range in length from about 160 to 210 cm (about 5 ft 3 in to 7 ft).
Wax applied to the middle part of the ski base helps Nordic skiers glide. Some Nordic skis are dubbed waxless. They have scales on the base that perform the function
of wax. Skating skis do not require wax at all. Alpine skiers also use wax, especially in racing events, to increase speed.
Telemark skis resemble cross-country skis but have metal edges. They are the equipment of choice for backcountry skiers, who may do some climbing. Strips of
material fastened to the bottom of each ski allow the ski to slide when pushed forward but prevent it from slipping backward. Special wax also makes climbing easier.
Alpine boots are made of hard plastic with an inside liner that provides warmth and a snug fit. The boots attach to the skis by means of toe and heel bindings, which are
screwed into the skis. Alpine bindings are designed to release the boot from the ski in the event of a fall, thus reducing the chance of injury. Poles are usually made of
aluminum and are used for balance and for timing turns. Newer models are made of composites and are thinner and lighter than traditional poles. A small plastic basket
at the end of each pole prevents the pole from sinking into the snow.
Nordic boots are usually made of leather, and they resemble a shoe or hiking boot with an extended toepiece to fit into the bindings. Telemark boots resemble sturdy
hiking boots. Nordic and telemark bindings attach only the toe of the boot to the ski, leaving the heel free to move up and down. Strips on the binding that match
grooves in the boot help keep the boot from slipping off to one side of the ski.
Poles are more important in cross-country skiing than in Alpine skiing, since they are used for propulsion as well as balance. Most recreational poles are made of
aluminum; higher-end racing poles are made of lightweight composites. Cross-country poles are longer than Alpine poles. For diagonal striding, skiers usually use poles
that come up to the armpit; those for the skating stride reach somewhere between the chin and nose.
Ski clothing is designed to keep the skier warm and dry. The best way to dress for Alpine skiing is in layers: The underlayer carries moisture away from the skin and
adds warmth, the second layer insulates, and the outer layer resists water and wind. Cross-country skiers follow the same principles in dressing, but their clothing is not
as heavy because they generate more body heat by moving continuously. Many Alpine skiers wear helmets specially designed for the sport. Goggles are important in
providing good visibility when weather is bad. When the weather is good, goggles can also help protect the eyes from the glare of the sun on the snow.

V

TYPES OF COMPETITIVE SKIING

The international governing body for competitive skiing is the Fédération Internationale de Ski (International Ski Federation, abbreviated FIS). The FIS holds a seasonlong series of competitions called the World Cup for the highest level of racers. The other major international ski events are the FIS World Championships, held every
other year, and the Winter Olympic Games, held every four years. There are also several lower levels of racing, down to competitions held at individual resorts all over
the world.

A

Alpine Competition

There are four events in Alpine ski racing: slalom (sometimes called special slalom), giant slalom (GS), super giant slalom (super G), and downhill. In some competitions,
the slalom and downhill times of racers are added together to determine the winner of the combined event. The different events require different techniques and
different equipment. In all of them, skiers run courses through a series of gates (pairs of poles with marker flags). The gates determine the path down the hill, and the
fastest skier wins.

A1

Slalom

Slalom courses are run through tightly set gates and emphasize agility, precision, and control. A slalom race consists of two runs, and the course is changed after the
first run. The skier with the fastest combined time from both runs wins. Skiers wear helmets and padded clothing to protect themselves from gates that they hit, and
they use short skis for greater agility.

A2

Giant Slalom

Giant slalom requires skiers to go faster than in the slalom while still making fairly tight turns. GS courses are longer than slalom courses, with the gates set farther
apart. The same format of two runs is used for giant slalom, and the skier with the fastest combined time from the two runs wins. In World Cup giant slalom races,
helmets are required.

A3

Super Giant Slalom

Super giant slalom is the newest Alpine event; it has been part of World Cup competition since 1983. Courses are longer and faster than in giant slalom but shorter than
in downhill. The winner is determined on the basis of one run (fastest time wins), and competitors must wear helmets.

A4

Downhill

Downhill is the fastest and therefore the most dangerous of the events, with speeds often well in excess of 100 km/h (62 mph). Courses are very long, with just a few
gates set to control speed. Because of the dangers of downhill racing, the FIS has strict safety regulations requiring courses to be lined with soft fencing and plastic
sheeting and requiring competitors to wear helmets. The winner is determined on the basis of one run (fastest time wins). Downhill racers use very long skis for greater
stability and glide. To cut down on wind resistance, they wear tight-fitting suits and use poles shaped to wrap around the body.

A5

Combined

At a few World Cup venues, an event called the Alpine combined is also held. Its results are usually determined from the slalom and downhill races, not from a separate
competition. The skier with the best combined times from the slalom and the downhill is declared the winner. In the Olympics, the Alpine combined is conducted as a
separate event, combining results from a specially held slalom race and a specially held downhill race.

B

Nordic Competition

Cross-country competition is organized in much the same way as Alpine competition, from FIS World Cup racing down to lower level racing and local resort-level
competition.

B1

Racing

Nordic race distances range from 5-km (3.1-mi) sprints to 50-km (31-mi) marathons. Courses must have a combination of uphills, downhills, and flats. The machineprepared trails have groovelike tracks set into them on most downhill sections and for all classical-style races.
There are both individual events and team relays, and both classical and freestyle races. Individual World Cup races are generally held at three different distances: 15,
30, and 50 km (9.3, 18.6, and 31 mi) for men and 5, 10, and 30 km (3.1, 6.2, and 18.6 mi) for women. In classical races skiers use the traditional diagonal stride, but
in freestyle races there are no restrictions on technique, and skiers use the faster skating stride. Racers usually start the race at 30-second intervals, and the fastest
individual time determines the winner. In some races all the skiers start at the same time.
World Cup relay races are the 4 x 10-kilometer men's race (4 men each ski 10 km) and the 4 x 5-kilometer women's race (4 women each ski 5 km). In recent years,
some new formats have emerged, mixing sexes or techniques. One such format is the two-day pursuit event, in which competitors race using both classical and
freestyle techniques, with cumulative time over the two days determining the winner.

B2

Jumping

Ski jumping is a highly specialized Nordic discipline in which competitors ski down a steep ramp, called the inrun, that curves upward at its end, or takeoff point. After
gliding through the air, jumpers land on a steep hill, which begins to flatten as it becomes the outrun, where skiers slow down and come to a stop. Jumps are classified
according to the average distance jumped. The most commonly used jumps in competition are 70 m (230 ft); 90 m (295 ft), called a normal hill; and 120 m (394 ft),
called a large hill.
The goal in jumping is to cover as much distance in the air as possible while displaying the best possible form. The V technique, in which the skis form a V with the front
tips apart, is considered to be the most aerodynamically successful jumping technique. A panel of five judges evaluates style. Distance and style are weighted about
equally in most events. There are also team jumping events, as well as ski flying competitions that are judged on distance only.

B3

Other Nordic Events

In Nordic combined competitions, jumping events are paired with cross-country racing. Scoring for the jumping portion is the same as for regular ski jumping. The
competitor's jumping score is then translated into a time handicap that determines the start in the cross-country portion of the competition. A "normal" Nordic combined
event includes two rounds of 90-m jumps and a 15-km cross-country race. An individual sprint is one 120-m jump and a 7.5-km race. There are also team events.

C

Freestyle Competition

Freestyle skiing is the most recently developed competitive Alpine skiing event. In the late 1960s, skiers in the United States began freestyle as an attempt to get away
from rigidly prescribed ski school forms and to introduce more fun and freedom into recreational skiing. Freestyle borrows many of its movements from figure skating,
gymnastics, and ballet. Freestyle events were introduced into international competition in the 1970s.
There are three freestyle events: acroski (formerly called ballet), moguls, and aerials. Freestyle competition is organized in a manner similar to Alpine and Nordic
competition, with FIS World Cups as the highest level of competition. All freestyle events are scored by judging. In addition to the individual events, there are also
combined titles for competitors who take part in all three.

C1

Acroski

Acroski is a program of jumps, spins, and gliding steps choreographed to the competitor's choice of music. Skiers take one 90-second run, and a panel of five to seven

judges evaluates the performance on artistic impression and technical difficulty.

C2

Moguls

Mogul competitions consist of high-speed runs on a heavily moguled slope with two jumps built into it. In the first round, each skier takes one run down the hill.
Competitors are judged on turns (which count for 50 percent of the total score), jumps (25 percent), and speed (25 percent) by a panel of seven judges. The top 12
competitors move on to a second round, and scores in this portion of the competition determine the winner.

C3

Aerials

Aerials are maneuvers performed off of specially built snow ramps. In technique they are similar to the maneuvers seen in competitive diving, with spins and flips.
Aerials competitors take two jumps, which are scored on takeoff, form and execution, and landing. Twenty percent of the competitor's score is for takeoff and 50
percent is for form in the air. In these parts of the competition, the scores of five judges are multiplied by the degree of difficulty of the jump. Two additional judges
score the landing, which counts for 30 percent of the total score. At lower levels of competition, only upright aerials (no flips) are permitted.

D

Other Competitions

Biathlon, an outgrowth of military training, combines cross-country ski racing with target shooting. Olympic and world championship events are held over a distance of
20 km (12.4 mi). Competitors alternate skiing a 4-km (2.5-mi) loop with rounds of target shooting. A competitor's score is based on a penalty system, in which extra
time is added to the cross-country result depending on shooting accuracy. Biathlon is the only skiing-related discipline that is not regulated by the FIS; it has its own
international governing body.
Snowboarding, developed primarily from surfing and skateboarding, was the fastest-growing winter sport of the 1980s and 1990s. Competitive snowboarding has both
an Alpine component, with racing through gates, and a freestyle component that is similar to competitions in skateboard parks. The FIS began holding snowboarding
World Cup competitions in the 1994-95 season, and snowboarding made its Olympic debut at the 1998 Winter Games in Nagano, Japan.
In the 1980s extreme skiing emerged as Alpine skiing's newest form of competition. The skiers who founded this sport in the 1960s descended previously unskied
terrain and pursued skiing in places where a fall carried extreme consequences--serious injury and even death. They defined extreme skiing with the saying, "If you fall,
you die." Today, the sport entails the descent of extremely difficult territory with apparent ease. The World Extreme Championships, which are not sanctioned by the
FIS, take place annually in Valdez, Alaska. In the multi-day event, participants are scored on turns, speed and control, and maneuvers. Many countries hold national
extreme competitions, leading up to the world championships.

VI

HISTORY

The oldest known skis, found in peat bogs in Sweden and Finland, are estimated to be from 4,500 to 5,000 years old. Rock carvings of two people on skis, dating from
around 2000

BC,

have been found near the Arctic Circle in Norway. Skis were originally used in Scandinavia for transportation and hunting, and they have been used in

military maneuvers since the 13th century.
Skiing as a form of recreation is much more recent in origin, although there is some evidence that it may have existed as early as the first half of the 18th century. One
of the first recorded competitions was a cross-country ski race held in Tromsø, Norway, in 1843. The first known ski exhibition was held at Kristiansand, Norway, in
1861, and the first international competition was held near Christiania (now Oslo), Norway, in 1892.
Sondre Norheim of Norway was responsible for inventing the sport of ski jumping in the 1840s; competitions began in the 1860s. Norheim was also responsible for
developing the first binding that went around the heel, stabilizing the boot on the ski. An Austrian, Mathias Zdarsky, later furthered Norheim's invention, developing the
first binding suitable for downhill Alpine technique. Zdarsky was also one of the first to teach skiing, and he wrote the first methodical analysis of skiing technique.
Norwegian emigration was partly responsible for the spread of Nordic skiing to the rest of the world. In the mid-1800s Norwegians traveled to Germany, North America,
Australia, and New Zealand, spreading their knowledge of skiing equipment and technique. In 1890 Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen published a book describing his
1888 ski expedition across the southern tip of Greenland; this also helped popularize skiing.
As skiing spread to mainland Europe, it soon became apparent that the techniques used by the Scandinavians were unsuitable for mountainous terrain, especially in the
Alps of south central Europe. Nordic techniques were therefore adapted for the steeper slopes, and Alpine skiing was born. Inspired by Nansen's book, Christoph Iselin
of Switzerland and Wilhelm Paulcke of Germany organized the first major ski tours of the Swiss Alps in the 1890s. For the first time, people on skis climbed such peaks
as the Jungfrau, in Switzerland, and Mont Blanc, on the French-Italian border, often without the aid of standard mountaineering equipment.
In Europe, an interest in summer mountaineering led to the building of lodgings, cable cars, and cog railways. Centers of tourism developed along the routes of trains
that crossed the Alps, with local railways running to small French and Swiss health resorts like Chamonix-Mont-Blanc, Davos, and Saint Moritz. When skiing became
popular, these tourist centers simply remained open during winter. People formed ski clubs all over Europe beginning in the 1860s.
Skiing was founded in the United States in the 1800s in communities where Scandinavians settled, especially in Wisconsin and Minnesota. The sport was also popular
among gold miners in California, who built the first ski factory in 1854 and held downhill races. They even used a predecessor of the chairlift: They rode ore buckets up
hills on a conveyor.
The development of lifts in the 1930s made skiing more popular and accessible. The first rope tow in North America was installed in Shawbridge, Québec, Canada, in
1932. The first T-bar was installed in Davos, Switzerland, in 1934, and Pico, Vermont, built the first in the United States in 1940. The first single chairlift was built in Sun
Valley, Idaho, in 1936.
An Austrian, Rudolph Lettner, invented and patented metal ski edges in the late 1920s, originally as a means of keeping his skis from wearing out. His invention later
revolutionized skiing technique by making it much easier to carve turns. American Howard Head made the first successful metal skis in 1949; the step-in Alpine binding,
which enables the skier simply to step into the binding to attach it to the boot, debuted in 1950; and the continuous metal ski edge was developed in 1955. The first allplastic boots went on sale in 1964.
An English writer and avid sportsman, Sir Arnold Lunn, organized the first major Alpine races. In 1911 he organized the Roberts of Kandahar Challenge (named after
British general Lord Roberts of Kandahar), a downhill race held in Montana, Switzerland, and in 1922 he invented slalom racing and drew up the first set of rules for the
sport. In collaboration with Austrian Hannes Schneider (who later started one of the first ski schools in the United States), Lunn later created the Alberg-Kandahar Race,
which is considered the true starting point of international Alpine ski racing. It was first held in Saint Anton, Austria, in 1928. The Fédération Internationale de Ski (FIS)
was founded in 1924. In 1930 it formally recognized Lunn's rules, and in 1931 the FIS began holding organized competitions.

Men's Nordic events were the only skiing races held in the 1924 Olympic Games, the first year the Winter Games were held. Not until the 1950s did women participate
in Nordic events in the Olympics. Women were included, however, when Alpine events were added to the Games in 1936. Gretchen Fraser was the first American skier
to win Olympic medals in the Winter Games, with a gold and a silver in 1948. Lucile Wheeler took Canada's first Winter Olympic medal, a bronze in the downhill in 1956.
Anne Heggtveit won Canada's first winter gold, in the slalom in 1960. Giant slalom joined downhill and slalom as an Olympic discipline in 1952, and super G debuted at
the 1988 Games. In 1967 the FIS started the World Cup.
The first freestyle competition was the North American Freestyle Skiing Championships, held in 1968 at Waterville Valley, New Hampshire. Freestyle skiing held its first
official FIS World Cup season in 1984, and the first FIS Freestyle World Championships were held in 1986. The sport was a demonstration event at the 1988 Winter
Olympics in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. In 1992 moguls events were added as a medal event, and aerials gained medal status in 1994.

Contributed By:
Mary McKhann
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.