Earth (planet).

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Earth (planet).
I

INTRODUCTION

Earth (planet), third planet in distance from the Sun in the solar system, the only planet known to harbor life, and the "home" of human beings. From space Earth
resembles a big blue marble with swirling white clouds floating above blue oceans. About 71 percent of Earth's surface is covered by water, which is essential to life. The
rest is land, mostly in the form of continents that rise above the oceans.
Earth's surface is surrounded by a layer of gases known as the atmosphere, which extends upward from the surface, slowly thinning out into space. Below the surface is
a hot interior of rocky material and two core layers composed of the metals nickel and iron in solid and liquid form.
Unlike the other planets, Earth has a unique set of characteristics ideally suited to supporting life as we know it. It is neither too hot, like Mercury, the closest planet to
the Sun, nor too cold, like distant Mars and the even more distant outer planets--Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the tiny dwarf planet Pluto. Earth's atmosphere
includes just the right amount of gases that trap heat from the Sun, resulting in a moderate climate suitable for water to exist in liquid form. The atmosphere also helps
block radiation from the Sun that would be harmful to life. Earth's atmosphere distinguishes it from the planet Venus, which is otherwise much like Earth. Venus is about
the same size and mass as Earth and is also neither too near nor too far from the Sun. But because Venus has too much heat-trapping carbon dioxide in its
atmosphere, its surface is extremely hot--462°C (864°F)--hot enough to melt lead and too hot for life to exist.
Although Earth is the only planet known to have life, scientists do not rule out the possibility that life may once have existed on other planets or their moons, or may
exist today in primitive form. Mars, for example, has many features that resemble river channels, indicating that liquid water once flowed on its surface. If so, life may
also have evolved there, and evidence for it may one day be found in fossil form. Water still exists on Mars, but it is frozen in polar ice caps, in permafrost, and possibly
in rocks below the surface.
For thousands of years, human beings could only wonder about Earth and the other observable planets in the solar system. Many early ideas--for example, that the
Earth was a sphere and that it traveled around the Sun--were based on brilliant reasoning. However, it was only with the development of the scientific method and
scientific instruments, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries, that humans began to gather data that could be used to verify theories about Earth and the rest of the
solar system. By studying fossils found in rock layers, for example, scientists realized that the Earth was much older than previously believed. And with the use of
telescopes, new planets such as Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto were discovered.
In the second half of the 20th century, more advances in the study of Earth and the solar system occurred due to the development of rockets that could send
spacecraft beyond Earth. Human beings were able to study and observe Earth from space with satellites equipped with scientific instruments. Astronauts landed on the
Moon and gathered ancient rocks that revealed much about the early solar system. During this remarkable advancement in human history, humans also sent unmanned
spacecraft to the other planets and their moons. Spacecraft have now visited all of the planets except Pluto, now classified as a dwarf planet. The study of other planets
and moons has provided new insights about Earth, just as the study of the Sun and other stars like it has helped shape new theories about how Earth and the rest of
the solar system formed.
As a result of this recent space exploration, we now know that Earth is one of the most geologically active of all the planets and moons in the solar system. Earth is
constantly changing. Over long periods of time land is built up and worn away, oceans are formed and re-formed, and continents move around, break up, and merge.
Life itself contributes to changes on Earth, especially in the way living things can alter Earth's atmosphere. For example, Earth at one time had the same amount of
carbon dioxide in its atmosphere as Venus now has, but early forms of life helped remove this carbon dioxide over millions of years. These life forms also added oxygen
to Earth's atmosphere and made it possible for animal life to evolve on land.
A variety of scientific fields have broadened our knowledge about Earth, including biogeography, climatology, geology, geophysics, hydrology, meteorology,
oceanography, and zoogeography. Collectively, these fields are known as Earth science. By studying Earth's atmosphere, its surface, and its interior and by studying
the Sun and the rest of the solar system, scientists have learned much about how Earth came into existence, how it changed, and why it continues to change.

II

EARTH, THE SOLAR SYSTEM, AND THE GALAXY

Earth is the third planet from the Sun, after Mercury and Venus. The average distance between Earth and the Sun is 150 million km (93 million mi). Earth and all the
other planets in the solar system revolve, or orbit, around the Sun due to the force of gravitation. The Earth travels at a velocity of about 107,000 km/h (about 67,000
mph) as it orbits the Sun. All but one of the planets orbit the Sun in the same plane--that is, if an imaginary line were extended from the center of the Sun to the outer
regions of the solar system, the orbital paths of the planets would intersect that line. The exception is the dwarf planet Pluto, which has an eccentric (unusual) orbit.
Earth's orbital path is not quite a perfect circle but instead is slightly elliptical (oval-shaped). For example, at maximum distance Earth is about 152 million km (about 95
million mi) from the Sun; at minimum distance Earth is about 147 million km (about 91 million mi) from the Sun. If Earth orbited the Sun in a perfect circle, it would
always be the same distance from the Sun.
The solar system, in turn, is part of the Milky Way Galaxy, a collection of billions of stars bound together by gravity. The Milky Way has armlike discs of stars that spiral
out from its center. The solar system is located in one of these spiral arms, known as the Orion arm, which is about two-thirds of the way from the center of the Galaxy.
In most parts of the Northern Hemisphere, this disc of stars is visible on a summer night as a dense band of light known as the Milky Way.
Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system. Its diameter, measured around the equator, is 12,756 km (7,926 mi). Earth is not a perfect sphere but is slightly
flattened at the poles. Its polar diameter, measured from the North Pole to the South Pole, is somewhat less than the equatorial diameter because of this flattening.
Although Earth is the largest of the four planets--Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars--that make up the inner solar system (the planets closest to the Sun), it is small
compared with the giant planets of the outer solar system--Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. For example, the largest planet, Jupiter, has a diameter at its
equator of 143,000 km (89,000 mi), 11 times greater than that of Earth. A famous atmospheric feature on Jupiter, the Great Red Spot, is so large that three Earths
would fit inside it.
Earth has one natural satellite, the Moon. The Moon orbits the Earth, completing one revolution in an elliptical path in 27 days 7 hr 43 min 11.5 sec. The Moon orbits the
Earth because of the force of Earth's gravity. However, the Moon also exerts a gravitational force on the Earth. Evidence for the Moon's gravitational influence can be
seen in the ocean tides. A popular theory suggests that the Moon split off from Earth more than 4 billion years ago when a large meteorite or small planet struck the
Earth.
As Earth revolves around the Sun, it rotates, or spins, on its axis, an imaginary line that runs between the North and South poles. The period of one complete rotation
is defined as a day and takes 23 hr 56 min 4.1 sec. The period of one revolution around the Sun is defined as a year, or 365.2422 solar days, or 365 days 5 hr 48 min
46 sec. Earth also moves along with the Milky Way Galaxy as the Galaxy rotates and moves through space. It takes more than 200 million years for the stars in the

Milky Way to complete one revolution around the Galaxy's center.
Earth's axis of rotation is inclined (tilted) 23.5° relative to its plane of revolution around the Sun. This inclination of the axis creates the seasons and causes the height
of the Sun in the sky at noon to increase and decrease as the seasons change. The Northern Hemisphere receives the most energy from the Sun when it is tilted
toward the Sun. This orientation corresponds to summer in the Northern Hemisphere and winter in the Southern Hemisphere. The Southern Hemisphere receives
maximum energy when it is tilted toward the Sun, corresponding to summer in the Southern Hemisphere and winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Fall and spring occur
in between these orientations.

III

EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is a layer of different gases that extends from Earth's surface to the exosphere, the outer limit of the atmosphere, about 9,600 km (6,000 mi) above
the surface. Near Earth's surface, the atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78 percent) and oxygen (21 percent). The remaining 1 percent of atmospheric
gases consists of argon (0.9 percent); carbon dioxide (0.03 percent); varying amounts of water vapor; and trace amounts of hydrogen, nitrous oxide, ozone, methane,
carbon monoxide, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon.

A

Layers of the Atmosphere

The layers of the atmosphere are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere. The troposphere is the layer in which
weather occurs and extends from the surface to about 16 km (about 10 mi) above sea level at the equator. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which has an
upper boundary of about 50 km (about 30 mi) above sea level. The layer from 50 to 90 km (30 to 60 mi) is called the mesosphere. At an altitude of about 90 km,
temperatures begin to rise. The layer that begins at this altitude is called the thermosphere because of the high temperatures that can be reached in this layer (about
1200°C, or about 2200°F). The region beyond the thermosphere is called the exosphere. The thermosphere and the exosphere overlap with another region of the
atmosphere known as the ionosphere, a layer or layers of ionized air extending from almost 60 km (about 50 mi) above Earth's surface to altitudes of 1,000 km (600
mi) and more.
Earth's atmosphere and the way it interacts with the oceans and radiation from the Sun are responsible for the planet's climate and weather. The atmosphere plays a
key role in supporting life. Almost all life on Earth uses atmospheric oxygen for energy in a process known as cellular respiration, which is essential to life. The
atmosphere also helps moderate Earth's climate by trapping radiation from the Sun that is reflected from Earth's surface. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and
nitrous oxide in the atmosphere act as "greenhouse gases." Like the glass in a greenhouse, they trap infrared, or heat, radiation from the Sun in the lower atmosphere
and thereby help warm Earth's surface. Without this greenhouse effect, heat radiation would escape into space, and Earth would be too cold to support most forms of
life.
Other gases in the atmosphere are also essential to life. The trace amount of ozone found in Earth's stratosphere blocks harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
Without the ozone layer, life as we know it could not survive on land. Earth's atmosphere is also an important part of a phenomenon known as the water cycle or the
hydrologic cycle. See also Atmosphere.

B

The Atmosphere and the Water Cycle

The water cycle simply means that Earth's water is continually recycled between the oceans, the atmosphere, and the land. All of the water that exists on Earth today
has been used and reused for billions of years. Very little water has been created or lost during this period of time. Water is constantly moving on Earth's surface and
changing back and forth between ice, liquid water, and water vapor.
The water cycle begins when the Sun heats the water in the oceans and causes it to evaporate and enter the atmosphere as water vapor. Some of this water vapor falls
as precipitation directly back into the oceans, completing a short cycle. Some of the water vapor, however, reaches land, where it may fall as snow or rain. Melted snow
or rain enters rivers or lakes on the land. Due to the force of gravity, the water in the rivers eventually empties back into the oceans. Melted snow or rain also may
enter the ground. Groundwater may be stored for hundreds or thousands of years, but it will eventually reach the surface as springs or small pools known as seeps.
Even snow that forms glacial ice or becomes part of the polar caps and is kept out of the cycle for thousands of years eventually melts or is warmed by the Sun and
turned into water vapor, entering the atmosphere and falling again as precipitation. All water that falls on land eventually returns to the ocean, completing the water
cycle.

IV

EARTH'S SURFACE

Earth's surface is the outermost layer of the planet. It includes the hydrosphere, the crust, and the biosphere.

A

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere consists of the bodies of water that cover 71 percent of Earth's surface. The largest of these are the oceans, which contain over 97 percent of all water
on Earth. Glaciers and the polar ice caps contain just over 2 percent of Earth's water in the form of solid ice. Only about 0.6 percent is under the surface as
groundwater. Nevertheless, groundwater is 36 times more plentiful than water found in lakes, inland seas, rivers, and in the atmosphere as water vapor. Only 0.017
percent of all the water on Earth is found in lakes and rivers. And a mere 0.001 percent is found in the atmosphere as water vapor. Most of the water in glaciers, lakes,
inland seas, rivers, and groundwater is fresh and can be used for drinking and agriculture. Dissolved salts compose about 3.5 percent of the water in the oceans,
however, making it unsuitable for drinking or agriculture unless it is treated to remove the salts.

B

Crust

The crust consists of the continents, other land areas, and the basins, or floors, of the oceans. The dry land of Earth's surface is called the continental crust. It is about
15 to 75 km (9 to 47 mi) thick. The oceanic crust is thinner than the continental crust. Its average thickness is 5 to 10 km (3 to 6 mi). The crust has a definite boundary
called the Mohorovi?i? discontinuity, or simply the Moho. The boundary separates the crust from the underlying mantle, which is much thicker and is part of Earth's
interior.
Oceanic crust and continental crust differ in the type of rocks they contain. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks
form when molten rock, called magma, cools and solidifies. Sedimentary rocks are usually created by the breakdown of igneous rocks. They tend to form in layers as
small particles of other rocks or as the mineralized remains of dead animals and plants that have fused together over time. The remains of dead animals and plants
occasionally become mineralized in sedimentary rock and are recognizable as fossils. Metamorphic rocks form when sedimentary or igneous rocks are altered by heat
and pressure deep underground.

Oceanic crust consists of dark, dense igneous rocks, such as basalt and gabbro. Continental crust consists of lighter-colored, less dense igneous rocks, such as granite
and diorite. Continental crust also includes metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks.

C

Biosphere

The biosphere includes all the areas of Earth capable of supporting life. The biosphere ranges from about 10 km (about 6 mi) into the atmosphere to the deepest ocean
floor. For a long time, scientists believed that all life depended on energy from the Sun and consequently could only exist where sunlight penetrated. In the 1970s,
however, scientists discovered various forms of life around hydrothermal vents on the floor of the Pacific Ocean where no sunlight penetrated. They learned that
primitive bacteria formed the basis of this living community and that the bacteria derived their energy from a process called chemosynthesis that did not depend on
sunlight. Some scientists believe that the biosphere may extend relatively deep into Earth's crust. They have recovered what they believe are primitive bacteria from
deeply drilled holes below the surface.

D

Changes to Earth's Surface

Earth's surface has been constantly changing ever since the planet formed. Most of these changes have been gradual, taking place over millions of years. Nevertheless,
these gradual changes have resulted in radical modifications, involving the formation, erosion, and re-formation of mountain ranges, the movement of continents, the
creation of huge supercontinents, and the breakup of supercontinents into smaller continents.
The weathering and erosion that result from the water cycle are among the principal factors responsible for changes to Earth's surface. Another principal factor is the
movement of Earth's continents and seafloors and the buildup of mountain ranges due to a phenomenon known as plate tectonics. Heat is the basis for all of these
changes. Heat in Earth's interior is believed to be responsible for continental movement, mountain building, and the creation of new seafloor in ocean basins. Heat from
the Sun is responsible for the evaporation of ocean water and the resulting precipitation that causes weathering and erosion. In effect, heat in Earth's interior helps
build up Earth's surface while heat from the Sun helps wear down the surface.

D1

Weathering

Weathering is the breakdown of rock at and near the surface of Earth. Most rocks originally formed in a hot, high-pressure environment below the surface where there
was little exposure to water. Once the rocks reached Earth's surface, however, they were subjected to temperature changes and exposed to water. When rocks are
subjected to these kinds of surface conditions, the minerals they contain tend to change. These changes constitute the process of weathering. There are two types of
weathering: physical weathering and chemical weathering.
Physical weathering involves a decrease in the size of rock material. Freezing and thawing of water in rock cavities, for example, splits rock into small pieces because
water expands when it freezes.
Chemical weathering involves a chemical change in the composition of rock. For example, feldspar, a common mineral in granite and other rocks, reacts with water to
form clay minerals, resulting in a new substance with totally different properties than the parent feldspar. Chemical weathering is of significance to humans because it
creates the clay minerals that are important components of soil, the basis of agriculture. Chemical weathering also causes the release of dissolved forms of sodium,
calcium, potassium, magnesium, and other chemical elements into surface water and groundwater. These elements are carried by surface water and groundwater to the
sea and are the sources of dissolved salts in the sea.

D2

Erosion

Erosion is the process that removes loose and weathered rock and carries it to a new site. Water, wind, and glacial ice combined with the force of gravity can cause
erosion.
Erosion by running water is by far the most common process of erosion. It takes place over a longer period of time than other forms of erosion. When water from rain
or melted snow moves downhill, it can carry loose rock or soil with it. Erosion by running water forms the familiar gullies and V-shaped valleys that cut into most
landscapes. The force of the running water removes loose particles formed by weathering. In the process, gullies and valleys are lengthened, widened, and deepened.
Often, water overflows the banks of the gullies or river channels, resulting in floods. Each new flood carries more material away to increase the size of the valley.
Meanwhile, weathering loosens more and more material so the process continues.
Erosion by glacial ice is less common, but it can cause the greatest landscape changes in the shortest amount of time. Glacial ice forms in a region where snow fails to
melt in the spring and summer and instead builds up as ice. For major glaciers to form, this lack of snowmelt has to occur for a number of years in areas with high
precipitation. As ice accumulates and thickens, it flows as a solid mass. As it flows, it has a tremendous capacity to erode soil and even solid rock. Ice is a major factor in
shaping some landscapes, especially mountainous regions. Glacial ice provides much of the spectacular scenery in these regions. Features such as horns (sharp
mountain peaks), arêtes (sharp ridges), glacially formed lakes, and U-shaped valleys are all the result of glacial erosion.
Wind is an important cause of erosion only in arid (dry) regions. Wind carries sand and dust, which can scour even solid rock.
Many factors determine the rate and kind of erosion that occurs in a given area. The climate of an area determines the distribution, amount, and kind of precipitation
that the area receives and thus the type and rate of weathering. An area with an arid climate erodes differently than an area with a humid climate. The elevation of an
area also plays a role by determining the potential energy of running water. The higher the elevation the more energetically water will flow due to the force of gravity.
The type of bedrock in an area (sandstone, granite, or shale) can determine the shapes of valleys and slopes, and the depth of streams.
A landscape's geologic age--that is, how long current conditions of weathering and erosion have affected the area--determines its overall appearance. Relatively young
landscapes tend to be more rugged and angular in appearance. Older landscapes tend to have more rounded slopes and hills. The oldest landscapes tend to be lowlying with broad, open river valleys and low, rounded hills. The overall effect of the wearing down of an area is to level the land; the tendency is toward the reduction of
all land surfaces to sea level.

D3

Plate Tectonics

Opposing this tendency toward leveling is a force responsible for raising mountains and plateaus and for creating new landmasses. These changes to Earth's surface
occur in the outermost solid portion of Earth, known as the lithosphere. The lithosphere consists of the crust and another region known as the upper mantle and is
approximately 65 to 100 km (40 to 60 mi) thick. Compared with the interior of the Earth, however, this region is relatively thin. The lithosphere is thinner in proportion
to the whole Earth than the skin of an apple is to the whole apple.

Scientists believe that the lithosphere is broken into a series of plates, or segments. According to the theory of plate tectonics, these plates move around on Earth's
surface over long periods of time. Tectonics comes from the Greek word, tektonikos, which means "builder."
According to the theory, the lithosphere is divided into large and small plates. The largest plates include the Pacific plate, the North American plate, the Eurasian plate,
the Antarctic plate, the Indo-Australian plate, and the African plate. Smaller plates include the Cocos plate, the Nazca plate, the Philippine plate, and the Caribbean
plate. Plate sizes vary a great deal. The Cocos plate is 2,000 km (1,000 mi) wide, while the Pacific plate is nearly 14,000 km (nearly 9,000 mi) wide.
These plates move in three different ways in relation to each other. They pull apart or move away from each other, they collide or move against each other, or they
slide past each other as they move sideways. The movement of these plates helps explain many geological events, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions as well
as mountain building and the formation of the oceans and continents.

D3a

When Plates Pull Apart

When the plates pull apart, two types of phenomena occur depending on whether the movement takes place in the oceans or on land. When plates pull apart on land,
deep valleys known as rift valleys form. An example of a rift valley is the Great Rift Valley that extends from Syria in the Middle East to Mozambique in Africa. When
plates pull apart in the oceans, long, sinuous chains of volcanic mountains called mid-ocean ridges form, and new seafloor is created at the site of these ridges. Rift
valleys are also present along the crests of the mid-ocean ridges.
Most scientists believe that gravity and heat from the interior of the Earth cause the plates to move apart and to create new seafloor. According to this explanation,
molten rock known as magma rises from Earth's interior to form hot spots beneath the ocean floor. As two oceanic plates pull apart from each other in the middle of the
oceans, a crack, or rupture, appears and forms the mid-ocean ridges. These ridges exist in all the world's ocean basins and resemble the seams of a baseball. The
molten rock rises through these cracks and creates new seafloor.

D3b

When Plates Collide

When plates collide or push against each other, regions called convergent plate margins form. Along these margins, one plate is usually forced to dive below the other.
As that plate dives, it triggers the melting of the surrounding lithosphere and a region just below it known as the asthenosphere. These pockets of molten crust rise
behind the margin through the overlying plate, creating curved chains of volcanoes known as arcs. This process is called subduction.
If one plate consists of oceanic crust and the other consists of continental crust, the denser oceanic crust will dive below the continental crust. If both plates are oceanic
crust, then either may be subducted. If both are continental crust, subduction can continue for a while but will eventually end because continental crust is not dense
enough to be forced very far into the upper mantle.
The results of this subduction process are readily visible on a map showing that 80 percent of the world's volcanoes rim the Pacific Ocean where plates are colliding
against each other. The subduction zone created by the collision of two oceanic plates--the Pacific plate and the Philippine plate--can also create a trench. Such a trench
resulted in the formation of the deepest point on Earth, the Mariana Trench, which is estimated to be 11,033 m (36,198 ft) below sea level.
On the other hand, when two continental plates collide, mountain building occurs. The collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate has produced the
Himalayan Mountains. This collision resulted in the highest point of Earth, Mount Everest, which is 8,850 m (29,035 ft) above sea level.

D3c

When Plates Slide Past Each Other

Finally, some of Earth's plates neither collide nor pull apart but instead slide past each other. These regions are called transform margins. Few volcanoes occur in these
areas because neither plate is forced down into Earth's interior and little melting occurs. Earthquakes, however, are abundant as the two rigid plates slide past each
other. The San Andreas Fault in California is a well-known example of a transform margin.
The movement of plates occurs at a slow pace, at an average rate of only 2.5 cm (1 in) per year. But over millions of years this gradual movement results in radical
changes. Current plate movement is making the Pacific Ocean and Mediterranean Sea smaller, the Atlantic Ocean larger, and the Himalayan Mountains higher.

V

EARTH'S INTERIOR

The interior of Earth plays an important role in plate tectonics. Scientists believe it is also responsible for Earth's magnetic field. This field is vital to life because it shields
the planet's surface from harmful cosmic rays and from a steady stream of energetic particles from the Sun known as the solar wind.

A

Composition of the Interior

Earth's interior consists of the mantle and the core. The mantle and core make up by far the largest part of Earth's mass. The distance from the base of the crust to the
center of the core is about 6,400 km (about 4,000 mi).
Scientists have learned about Earth's interior by studying rocks that formed in the interior and rose to the surface. The study of meteorites, which are believed to be
made of the same material that formed the Earth and its interior, has also offered clues about Earth's interior. Finally, seismic waves generated by earthquakes provide
geophysicists with information about the composition of the interior. The sudden movement of rocks during an earthquake causes vibrations that transmit energy
through the Earth in the form of waves. The way these waves travel through the interior of Earth reveals the nature of materials inside the planet.
The mantle consists of three parts: the lower part of the lithosphere, the region below it known as the asthenosphere, and the region below the asthenosphere called
the lower mantle. The entire mantle extends from the base of the crust to a depth of about 2,900 km (about 1,800 mi). Scientists believe the asthenosphere is made up
of mushy plastic-like rock with pockets of molten rock. The term asthenosphere is derived from Greek and means "weak layer." The asthenosphere's soft, plastic quality
allows plates in the lithosphere above it to shift and slide on top of the asthenosphere. This shifting of the lithosphere's plates is the source of most tectonic activity. The
asthenosphere is also the source of the basaltic magma that makes up much of the oceanic crust and rises through volcanic vents on the ocean floor.
The mantle consists of mostly solid iron-magnesium silicate rock mixed with many other minor components including radioactive elements. However, even this solid rock
can flow like a "sticky" liquid when it is subjected to enough heat and pressure.
The core is divided into two parts, the outer core and the inner core. The outer core is about 2,260 km (about 1,404 mi) thick. The outer core is a liquid region
composed mostly of iron, with smaller amounts of nickel and sulfur in liquid form. The inner core is about 1,220 km (about 758 mi) thick. The inner core is solid and is
composed of iron, nickel, and sulfur in solid form. Because the inner core is surrounded by a liquid region, it can rotate independently. Recent scientific studies indicate
that the inner core may actually rotate faster than the rest of the planet, making one full extra spin over a period of 700 to 1,200 years. The inner core and the outer

core also contain a small percentage of radioactive material. The existence of radioactive material is one of the sources of heat in Earth's interior because as radioactive
material decays, it gives off heat. Temperatures in the inner core may be as high as 6650°C (12,000°F).

B

The Core and Earth's Magnetism

Scientists believe that Earth's liquid iron core is instrumental in creating a magnetic field that surrounds Earth and shields the planet from harmful cosmic rays and the
Sun's solar wind. The idea that Earth is like a giant magnet was first proposed in 1600 by English physician and natural philosopher William Gilbert. Gilbert proposed the
idea to explain why the magnetized needle in a compass points north. According to Gilbert, Earth's magnetic field creates a magnetic north pole and a magnetic south
pole. The magnetic poles do not correspond to the geographic North and South poles, however. Moreover, the magnetic poles wander and are not always in the same
place. The north magnetic pole is currently close to Ellef Ringnes Island in the Queen Elizabeth Islands near the boundary of Canada's Northwest Territories with
Nunavut. The south magnetic pole lies just off the coast of Wilkes Land, Antarctica.
Not only do the magnetic poles wander, but they also reverse their polarity--that is, the north magnetic pole becomes the south magnetic pole and vice versa. Magnetic
reversals have occurred at least 170 times over the past 100 million years. The reversals occur on average about every 200,000 years and take place gradually over a
period of several thousand years. Scientists still do not understand why these magnetic reversals occur but think they may be related to Earth's rotation and changes in
the flow of liquid iron in the outer core.
Some scientists theorize that the flow of liquid iron in the outer core sets up electrical currents that produce Earth's magnetic field. Known as the dynamo theory, this
theory appears to be the best explanation yet for the origin of the magnetic field. Earth's magnetic field operates in a region above Earth's surface known as the
magnetosphere. The magnetosphere is shaped somewhat like a teardrop with a long tail that trails away from the Earth due to the force of the solar wind.
Inside the magnetosphere are the Van Allen radiation belts, named for the American physicist James A. Van Allen who discovered them in 1958. The Van Allen belts are
regions where charged particles from the Sun and from cosmic rays are trapped and sent into spiral paths along the lines of Earth's magnetic field. The radiation belts
thereby shield Earth's surface from these highly energetic particles. Occasionally, however, due to extremely strong magnetic fields on the Sun's surface, which are
visible as sunspots, a brief burst of highly energetic particles streams along with the solar wind. Because Earth's magnetic field lines converge and are closest to the
surface at the poles, some of these energetic particles sneak through and interact with Earth's atmosphere, creating the phenomenon known as an aurora.

VI EARTH'S PAST
A Origin of Earth
Most scientists believe that the Earth, Sun, and all of the other planets and moons in the solar system formed about 4.6 billion years ago from a giant cloud of gas and
dust known as the solar nebula. The gas and dust in this solar nebula originated in a star that ended its life in a violent explosion known as a supernova. The solar
nebula consisted principally of hydrogen, the lightest element, but the nebula was also seeded with a smaller percentage of heavier elements, such as carbon and
oxygen. All of the chemical elements we know were originally made in the star that became a supernova. Our bodies are made of these same chemical elements.
Therefore, all of the elements in our solar system, including all of the elements in our bodies, originally came from this star-seeded solar nebula.
Due to the force of gravity tiny clumps of gas and dust began to form in the early solar nebula. As these clumps came together and grew larger, they caused the solar
nebula to contract in on itself. The contraction caused the cloud of gas and dust to flatten in the shape of a disc. As the clumps continued to contract, they became very
dense and hot. Eventually the atoms of hydrogen became so dense that they began to fuse in the innermost part of the cloud, and these nuclear reactions gave birth to
the Sun. The fusion of hydrogen atoms in the Sun is the source of its energy.
Many scientists favor the planetesimal theory for how the Earth and other planets formed out of this solar nebula. This theory helps explain why the inner planets
became rocky while the outer planets, except for the dwarf planet Pluto, are made up mostly of gases. The theory also explains why all of the planets orbit the Sun in
the same plane.
According to this theory, temperatures decreased with increasing distance from the center of the solar nebula. In the inner region, where Mercury, Venus, Earth, and
Mars formed, temperatures were low enough that certain heavier elements, such as iron and the other heavy compounds that make up rock, could condense out--that
is, could change from a gas to a solid or liquid. Due to the force of gravity, small clumps of this rocky material eventually came together with the dust in the original
solar nebula to form protoplanets or planetesimals (small rocky bodies). These planetesimals collided, broke apart, and re-formed until they became the four inner rocky
planets. The inner region, however, was still too hot for other light elements, such as hydrogen and helium, to be retained. These elements could only exist in the
outermost part of the disc, where temperatures were lower. As a result two of the outer planets--Jupiter and Saturn--are mostly made of hydrogen and helium, which
are also the dominant elements in the atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune.

B

The Early Earth

Within the planetesimal Earth, heavier matter sank to the center and lighter matter rose toward the surface. Most scientists believe that Earth was never truly molten
and that this transfer of matter took place in the solid state. Much of the matter that went toward the center contained radioactive material, an important source of
Earth's internal heat. As heavier material moved inward, lighter material moved outward, the planet became layered, and the layers of the core and mantle were
formed. This process is called differentiation.
Not long after they formed, more than 4 billion years ago, the Earth and the Moon underwent a period when they were bombarded by meteorites, the rocky debris left
over from the formation of the solar system. The impact craters created during this period of heavy bombardment are still visible on the Moon's surface, which is
unchanged. Earth's craters, however, were long ago erased by weathering, erosion, and mountain building. Because the Moon has no atmosphere, its surface has not
been subjected to weathering or erosion. Thus, the evidence of meteorite bombardment remains.
Energy released from the meteorite impacts created extremely high temperatures on Earth that melted the outer part of the planet and created the crust. By 4 billion
years ago, both the oceanic and continental crust had formed, and the oldest rocks were created. These rocks are known as the Acasta Gneiss and are found in
Canada's Northwest Territories. Due to the meteorite bombardment, the early Earth was too hot for liquid water to exist and so it was impossible for life to exist.

C

Geologic Time

Geologists divide the history of the Earth into three eons: the Archean Eon, which lasted from around 4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago; the Proterozoic Eon, which lasted
from 2.5 billion to 543 million years ago; and the Phanerozoic Eon, which lasted from 543 million years ago to the present. Each eon is subdivided into different eras.
For example, the Phanerozoic Eon includes the Paleozoic Era, the Mesozoic Era, and the Cenozoic Era. In turn, eras are further divided into periods. For example, the
Paleozoic Era includes the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian Periods.

The Archean Eon is subdivided into four eras, the Eoarchean, the Paleoarchean, the Mesoarchean, and the Neoarchean. The beginning of the Archean is generally dated
as the age of the oldest terrestrial rocks, which are about 4 billion years old. The Archean Eon ended 2.5 billion years ago when the Proterozoic Eon began. The
Proterozoic Eon is subdivided into three eras: the Paleoproterozoic Era, the Mesoproterozoic Era, and the Neoproterozoic Era. The Proterozoic Eon lasted from 2.5 billion
years ago to 543 million years ago when the Phanerozoic Eon began. The Phanerozoic Eon is subdivided into three eras: the Paleozoic Era from 543 million to 248 million
years ago, the Mesozoic Era from 248 million to 65 million years ago, and the Cenozoic Era from 65 million years ago to the present.
Geologists base these divisions on the study and dating of rock layers or strata, including the fossilized remains of plants and animals found in those layers. Until the
late 1800s scientists could only determine the relative ages of rock strata. They knew that in general the top layers of rock were the youngest and formed most
recently, while deeper layers of rock were older. The field of stratigraphy shed much light on the relative ages of rock layers.
The study of fossils also enabled geologists to determine the relative ages of different rock layers. The fossil record helped scientists determine how organisms evolved
or when they became extinct. By studying rock layers around the world, geologists and paleontologists saw that the remains of certain animal and plant species
occurred in the same layers, but were absent or altered in other layers. They soon developed a fossil index that also helped determine the relative ages of rock layers.
Beginning in the 1890s, scientists learned that radioactive elements in rock decay at a known rate. By studying this radioactive decay, they could determine an absolute
age for rock layers. This type of dating, known as radiometric dating, confirmed the relative ages determined through stratigraphy and the fossil index and assigned
absolute ages to the various strata. As a result scientists were able to assemble Earth's geologic time scale from the Archean Eon to the present. See also Geologic
Time.

C1

Precambrian

The Precambrian is a time span that includes the Archean and Proterozoic eons and began about 4 billion years ago. The Precambrian marks the first formation of
continents, the oceans, the atmosphere, and life. The Precambrian represents the oldest chapter in Earth's history that can still be studied. Very little remains of Earth
from the period of 4.6 billion to about 4 billion years ago due to the melting of rock caused by the early period of meteorite bombardment. Rocks dating from the
Precambrian, however, have been found in Africa, Antarctica, Australia, Brazil, Canada, and Scandinavia. Some zircon mineral grains deposited in Australian rock layers
have been dated to 4.2 billion years.
The Precambrian is also the longest chapter in Earth's history, spanning a period of about 3.5 billion years. During this timeframe, the atmosphere and the oceans
formed from gases that escaped from the hot interior of the planet as a result of widespread volcanic eruptions. The early atmosphere consisted primarily of nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, and water vapor. As Earth continued to cool, the water vapor condensed out and fell as precipitation to form the oceans. Some scientists believe that
much of Earth's water vapor originally came from comets containing frozen water that struck Earth during the period of meteorite bombardment.
By studying 2-billion-year-old rocks found in northwestern Canada, as well as 2.5-billion-year-old rocks in China, scientists have found evidence that plate tectonics
began shaping Earth's surface as early as the middle Precambrian. About a billion years ago, the Earth's plates were centered around the South Pole and formed a
supercontinent called Rodinia. Slowly, pieces of this supercontinent broke away from the central continent and traveled north, forming smaller continents.
Life originated during the Precambrian. The earliest fossil evidence of life consists of prokaryotes, one-celled organisms that lacked a nucleus and reproduced by
dividing, a process known as asexual reproduction. Asexual division meant that a prokaryote's hereditary material was copied unchanged. The first prokaryotes were
bacteria known as archaebacteria. Scientists believe they came into existence perhaps as early as 3.8 billion years ago, but certainly by about 3.5 billion years ago, and
were anaerobic--that is, they did not require oxygen to produce energy. Free oxygen barely existed in the atmosphere of the early Earth.
Archaebacteria were followed about 3.46 billion years ago by another type of prokaryote known as cyanobacteria or blue-green algae. These cyanobacteria gradually
introduced oxygen in the atmosphere as a result of photosynthesis. In shallow tropical waters, cyanobacteria formed mats that grew into humps called stromatolites.
Fossilized stromatolites have been found in rocks in the Pilbara region of western Australia that are more than 3.4 billion years old and in rocks of the Gunflint Chert
region of northwest Lake Superior that are about 2.1 billion years old.
For billions of years, life existed only in the simple form of prokaryotes. Prokaryotes were followed by the relatively more advanced eukaryotes, organisms that have a
nucleus in their cells and that reproduce by combining or sharing their heredity makeup rather than by simply dividing. Sexual reproduction marked a milestone in life
on Earth because it created the possibility of hereditary variation and enabled organisms to adapt more easily to a changing environment. The very latest part of
Precambrian time some 560 million to 545 million years ago saw the appearance of an intriguing group of fossil organisms known as the Ediacaran fauna. First
discovered in the northern Flinders Range region of Australia in the mid-1940s and subsequently found in many locations throughout the world, these strange fossils
appear to be the precursors of many of the fossil groups that were to explode in Earth's oceans in the Paleozoic Era. See also Evolution; Natural Selection.

C2

Paleozoic Era

At the start of the Paleozoic Era about 543 million years ago, an enormous expansion in the diversity and complexity of life occurred. This event took place in the
Cambrian Period and is called the Cambrian explosion. Nothing like it has happened since. Almost all of the major groups of animals we know today made their first
appearance during the Cambrian explosion. Almost all of the different "body plans" found in animals today--that is, the way an animal's body is designed, with heads,
legs, rear ends, claws, tentacles, or antennae--also originated during this period.
Fishes first appeared during the Paleozoic Era, and multicellular plants began growing on the land. Other land animals, such as scorpions, insects, and amphibians, also
originated during this time. Just as new forms of life were being created, however, other forms of life were going out of existence. Natural selection meant that some
species were able to flourish, while others failed. In fact, mass extinctions of animal and plant species were commonplace.
Most of the early complex life forms of the Cambrian explosion lived in the sea. The creation of warm, shallow seas, along with the buildup of oxygen in the atmosphere,
may have aided this explosion of life forms. The shallow seas were created by the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia. During the Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian
periods, which followed the Cambrian Period and lasted from 490 million to 354 million years ago, some of the continental pieces that had broken off Rodinia collided.
These collisions resulted in larger continental masses in equatorial regions and in the Northern Hemisphere. The collisions built a number of mountain ranges, including
parts of the Appalachian Mountains in North America and the Caledonian Mountains of northern Europe.
Toward the close of the Paleozoic Era, two large continental masses, Gondwanaland to the south and Laurasia to the north, faced each other across the equator. Their
slow but eventful collision during the Permian Period of the Paleozoic Era, which lasted from 290 million to 248 million years ago, assembled the supercontinent Pangaea
and resulted in some of the grandest mountains in the history of Earth. These mountains included other parts of the Appalachians and the Ural Mountains of Asia. At the
close of the Paleozoic Era, Pangaea represented over 90 percent of all the continental landmasses. Pangaea straddled the equator with a huge mouthlike opening that
faced east. This opening was the Tethys Ocean, which closed as India moved northward creating the Himalayas. The last remnants of the Tethys Ocean can be seen in
today's Mediterranean Sea.

The Paleozoic came to an end with a major extinction event, when perhaps as many as 90 percent of all plant and animal species died out. The reason is not known for
sure, but many scientists believe that huge volcanic outpourings of lavas in central Siberia, coupled with an asteroid impact, were joint contributing factors.

C3

Mesozoic Era

The Mesozoic Era, beginning 248 million years ago, is often characterized as the Age of Reptiles because reptiles were the dominant life forms during this era. Reptiles
dominated not only on land, as dinosaurs, but also in the sea, in the form of the plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs, and in the air, as pterosaurs, which were flying reptiles.
See also Dinosaur; Plesiosaur; Ichthyosaur; Pterosaur.
The Mesozoic Era is divided into three geological periods: the Triassic, which lasted from 248 million to 206 million years ago; the Jurassic, from 206 million to 144 million
years ago; and the Cretaceous, from 144 million to 65 million years ago. The dinosaurs emerged during the Triassic Period and were one of the most successful animals
in Earth's history, lasting for about 180 million years before going extinct at the end of the Cretaceous Period. The first birds and mammals and the first flowering plants
also appeared during the Mesozoic Era. Before flowering plants emerged, plants with seed-bearing cones known as conifers were the dominant form of plants. Flowering
plants soon replaced conifers as the dominant form of vegetation during the Mesozoic Era.
The Mesozoic was an eventful era geologically with many changes to Earth's surface. Pangaea continued to exist for another 50 million years during the early Mesozoic
Era. By the early Jurassic Period, Pangaea began to break up. What is now South America began splitting from what is now Africa, and in the process the South Atlantic
Ocean formed. As the landmass that became North America drifted away from Pangaea and moved westward, a long subduction zone extended along North America's
western margin. This subduction zone and the accompanying arc of volcanoes extended from what is now Alaska to the southern tip of South America. Much of this
feature, called the American Cordillera, exists today as the eastern margin of the Pacific Ring of Fire.
During the Cretaceous Period, heat continued to be released from the margins of the drifting continents, and as they slowly sank, vast inland seas formed in much of
the continental interiors. The fossilized remains of fishes and marine mollusks called ammonites can be found today in the middle of the North American continent
because these areas were once underwater. Large continental masses broke off the northern part of southern Gondwanaland during this period and began to narrow
the Tethys Ocean. The largest of these continental masses, present-day India, moved northward toward its collision with southern Asia. As both the North Atlantic
Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean continued to open, North and South America became isolated continents for the first time in 450 million years. Their westward journey
resulted in mountains along their western margins, including the Andes of South America.

C4

Cenozoic Era

The Cenozoic Era, beginning about 65 million years ago, is the period when mammals became the dominant form of life on land. Human beings first appeared in the
later stages of the Cenozoic Era. In short, the modern world as we know it, with its characteristic geographical features and its animals and plants, came into being. All
of the continents that we know today took shape during this era.
A single catastrophic event may have been responsible for this relatively abrupt change from the Age of Reptiles to the Age of Mammals. Most scientists now believe
that a huge asteroid or comet struck the Earth at the end of the Mesozoic and the beginning of the Cenozoic eras, causing the extinction of many forms of life, including
the dinosaurs. Evidence of this collision came with the discovery of a large impact crater off the coast of Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula and the worldwide finding of iridium,
a metallic element rare on Earth but abundant in meteorites, in rock layers dated from the end of the Cretaceous Period. The extinction of the dinosaurs opened the
way for mammals to become the dominant land animals.
The Cenozoic Era is divided into the Tertiary and the Quaternary periods. The Tertiary Period lasted from about 65 million to about 1.8 million years ago. The
Quaternary Period began about 1.8 million years ago and continues to the present day. These periods are further subdivided into epochs, such as the Pleistocene, from
1.8 million to 10,000 years ago, and the Holocene, from 10,000 years ago to the present.
Early in the Tertiary Period, Pangaea was completely disassembled, and the modern continents were all clearly outlined. India and other continental masses began
colliding with southern Asia to form the Himalayas. Africa and a series of smaller microcontinents began colliding with southern Europe to form the Alps. The Tethys
Ocean was nearly closed and began to resemble today's Mediterranean Sea. As the Tethys continued to narrow, the Atlantic continued to open, becoming an ever-wider
ocean. Iceland appeared as a new island in later Tertiary time, and its active volcanism today indicates that seafloor spreading is still causing the country to grow.
Late in the Tertiary Period, about 6 million years ago, humans began to evolve in Africa. These early humans began to migrate to other parts of the world between 2
million and 1.7 million years ago.
The Quaternary Period marks the onset of the great ice ages. Many times, perhaps at least once every 100,000 years on average, vast glaciers 3 km (2 mi) thick
invaded much of North America, Europe, and parts of Asia. The glaciers eroded considerable amounts of material that stood in their paths, gouging out U-shaped
valleys. Anatomically modern human beings, known as Homo sapiens, became the dominant form of life in the Quaternary Period. Most anthropologists (scientists who
study human life and culture) believe that anatomically modern humans originated only recently in Earth's 4.6-billion-year history, within the past 200,000 years. See
also Human Evolution.

VII

EARTH'S FUTURE

With the rise of human civilization about 8,000 years ago and especially since the Industrial Revolution in the mid-1700s, human beings began to alter the surface,
water, and atmosphere of Earth. In doing so, they have become active geological agents, not unlike other forces of change that influence the planet. As a result, Earth's
immediate future depends to a great extent on the behavior of humans. For example, the widespread use of fossil fuels is releasing carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and threatens to warm the planet's surface. This global warming could melt glaciers and the polar ice caps, which could flood
coastlines around the world and many island nations. In effect, the carbon dioxide that was removed from Earth's early atmosphere by the oceans and by primitive
plant and animal life, and subsequently buried as fossilized remains in sedimentary rock, is being released back into the atmosphere and is threatening the existence of
living things. See also Global Warming.
Even without human intervention, Earth will continue to change because it is geologically active. Many scientists believe that some of these changes can be predicted.
For example, based on studies of the rate that the seafloor is spreading in the Red Sea, some geologists predict that in 200 million years the Red Sea will be the same
size as the Atlantic Ocean is today. Other scientists predict that the continent of Asia will break apart millions of years from now, and as it does, Lake Baikal in Siberia
will become a vast ocean, separating two landmasses that once made up the Asian continent.
In the far, far distant future, however, scientists believe that Earth will become an uninhabitable planet, scorched by the Sun. Knowing the rate at which nuclear fusion
occurs in the Sun and knowing the Sun's mass, astrophysicists (scientists who study stars) have calculated that the Sun will become brighter and hotter about 3 billion
years from now, when it will be hot enough to boil Earth's oceans away. Based on studies of how other Sun-like stars have evolved, scientists predict that the Sun will
become a red giant, a star with a very large, hot atmosphere, about 7 billion years from now. As a red giant the Sun's outer atmosphere will expand until it engulfs the

planet Mercury. The Sun will then be 2,000 times brighter than it is now and so hot it will melt Earth's rocks. Earth will end its existence as a burnt cinder. See also Sun.
Three billion years is the life span of millions of human generations, however. Perhaps by then, humans will have learned how to journey beyond the solar system to
colonize other planets in the Milky Way Galaxy and find another place to call "home."

Reviewed By:
Alan V. Morgan
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.